There are more than 2,000 described species . Small organic particles are moved into the mouth by the tube feet. . Make A Lasting Impact By Leaving A Gift To Ocean Conservancy In Your Will. Together, we create evidence-based solutions for a healthy ocean and the wildlife and communities that depend on it. The principles are the same. Ophiuroida move horizontally, and Euryalina species move vertically. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. Generally, this five-armed echinoderm can be attributed as a docile and peaceful marine invertebrate that can live with fish, corals, and other invertebrates without inflicting any form of injury on them, though there are few species that are not considered reef-safe. Calcium: 380 450 ppm For example, Banded Brittle Starfish (Ophiolepis superba), one of the most popular species in the aquarium hobby, usually grows up to 6 8 inches (15 20 cm). Other aquarists saw how they broke the legs of, For more details, you can also read my article , Problems Associated with Serpent (Brittle) starfish, Reproduction of Serpent (Brittle) Starfish, Serpent (Brittle) Starfish and Suitable Tankmates, Other compatible tankmates are shrimp species like, Never keep the Serpent (Brittle) Starfish and predatory shrimp such as. Ophiothrix fragilis is a species of brittle star in the order Ophiurida. Over 60 species of brittle stars are known to be bioluminescent. . Ophiuroids may also prey on small crustaceans or worms. ThoughtCo, Aug. 26, 2020, thoughtco.com/brittle-stars-2291454. . Brittle stars occur in all the world's oceans from the deep sea to intertidal zones, and including salt and brackish polar areas, temperate, and tropical waters. The body outline is similar to that of starfish, in that ophiuroids have five arms joined to a central body disk. In addition, few are capable of providing nourishment to their young ones through the wall of the bursa during this period. [6] The stomach wall contains glandular hepatic cells. Five-limbed brittle stars move bilaterally, like people, Global Diversity of Brittle Stars (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea), M.S., Resource Administration and Management, University of New Hampshire, B.S., Natural Resources, Cornell University. Brittle stars can be easily distinguished from sea stars by their bodies. When the brittle star turns, instead of turning its whole body, it efficiently just picks a new pointer arm to lead the way. The Ophiuroidea contain two large clades, Ophiurida (brittle stars) and Euryalida (basket stars). So, do well to quarantine the Serpent (Brittle) starfish before introducing it into your reef aquarium, because it may have been exposed to these parasites in its previous home. [14] Until discoveries in the Agrio Formation of Neuqun Basin in the 2010s no fossil brittle star was known in the Southern Hemisphere, nor was any brittle star of Cretaceous age known.[14]. Although Serpent (Brittle) stars do not have eyes, they can sense it. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. As long as the central disc is intact, the brittle star can lose any or all of its arms and grow . Ophiuroidea comprises over 2000 species of brittle stars/serpent stars and about 270 known genera. [1] There are about 1500 different species. This page was last edited on 4 February 2023, at 20:12. In fact, an alternate common name is the serpent stars. Draft season has officially begun. In addition, they come in a variety of colors, sizes, and forms, and pack extraordinary regenerative abilities. Most basket stars live in deep water. For this reason, one should rule out every possibility of keeping this invertebrate in a new tank that is still cycling. In addition to predatory shrimp, some crabs (for example,Arrow crabs,Sally Lightfoot Crab) can also make attempts to devour your starfish. This starfish needs abundant food, good water quality, and stable water conditions since it is intolerant of sudden changes in pH, oxygen levels, and salinity. Like sea stars, brittle stars have a vascular system that uses water to control locomotion, respiration, and food and waste transportation, and their tube feet are filled with water. [11] Most of these produce light in the green wavelengths, although a few blue-emitting species have also been discovered. In some areas, they are found residing in large numbers in deep water areas such as "Brittle Star City" discovered off Antarctica several years ago, where tens of millions of brittle stars were found crammed together. The ossicles are surrounded by a relatively thin ring of soft tissue, and then by four series of jointed plates, one each on the upper, lower, and lateral surfaces of the arm. Body comprises of a distinct pentagonal disc and 5 narrow flexible jointed and slender arms radiating from it. again or contact 1.888.780.6763. shiny. They should be kept in higher volume tanks with medium to large size fish. We will start with what they have in common. Two of the best-known shallow species are the green brittle star (Ophioderma brevispina), found from Massachusetts to Brazil, and the common European brittle star (Ophiothrix fragilis). Both are echinoderms that belong to the Class Ophiuroidea, which contains thousands of species. When they feel it, they immediately seek the nearest shelter to hide in or under. The most widespread species is the long-armed brittle star (Amphipholis squamata), a grayish or bluish species that is strongly luminescent. . Moreover, the Amphiuridae can regenerate gut and gonad fragments lost along with the arms. Brittle stars are starfish-like echinoderms (phylum Echinodermata, class Ophiuroidea), whose star-shaped bodies are radially symmetrical and are supported by a hard endoskeleton made of calcium salts. Washington: Smithsonian Institution . They are not usually used for feeding, as in Asteroidea. Your email address will not be published. They can easily thrive in marine tanks; in fact, the micro brittle star is a common "hitchhiker" that will propagate and become common in almost any saltwater tank, if one happens to come along on some live rock. Join us at 9 PM ET/8 PM CT/6PM PT at one of the links in our Linktree below: linktr.ee/brothersinbooze See you all then! In fact, their class name originally derives from the Greek words for 'serpent' (ophis) and 'tail' (oura). They both represent nearly 2,000 species. Straight pedicellaria are typically larger and located on the body surface . Like all echinoderms they are usually pentamerous, although species with six and more arms exist. Brittle stars are Echinoderms of the Class Ophiuroidea. The common brittle star, Ophiothrix fragilis, Strangford Lough, Co. Down, Northern Ireland, -22 m, 5 September 2007. Class Ophiuroidea, derived from the ancient Greek words ophis meaning "snake" and ura meaning "tail," refers to the snake-like way their long, slender arms move. Please try again If you want to dive even deeper into brittle stars, check out , NOAA-21st CCLC Watershed STEM Education Partnership Grants. EvoDevo A New Morphological Phylogeny of the Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) Accords with Molecular Evidence and Renders Microfossils Accessible for Cladistics Subtidal species can be collected from sandy bottoms by diving or dredging. Photo: Eric Wahl, A brittle star climbing on a octocoral skeleton in National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa. Cant really blame them. Working together, we safeguard species and the places they call home and preserve Americas maritime resources. You wouldnt be alone in thinking sea stars and brittle stars are one in the same. It is found around the coasts of western Europe and is known in Britain as the common brittle star. The size of a large adult serpent starfish depends on the species. Do not place Ophiarachna incrassate in a community tank! It is better to spot feed them large chunks of food to keep them healthy. A madreporite, a trap door on the brittle star's ventral surface (underside), controls the movement of water in and out of the star's body. Brittle stars belong to the taxonomic class Ophiuroidea under the phylum Echinodermata. Compared to starfish, brittle stars have a much smaller central disc and no anus. Learn about what traits these shining stars share and what makes them perfectly different below: Brittle stars can be easily distinguished from sea stars by their bodies. Ophiuroids are a large group (over 1600 species) of echinoderms that includes the brittle stars (Ophiurida) and basket stars (Euryalida). They both occupy nearly all areas of the worlds ocean and most of our national marine sanctuaries . This process is known as autotomy or self-amputation, andwhen the star is threatened, the nerve system tells the mutable collagenous tissue near the base of the arm to disintegrate. The World Ophiuroidea Databaselists over 2,000 species of brittle stars accepted in theClass Ophiuridea, the taxonomic class whichcontains brittle stars, as well as basket stars and snake stars (Kingdom: Animalia, Phylum: Echinodermata, Class: Ophiuroidea, Order: Ophiurida). Class Asteroidea. The underside of the disk contains the mouth, which has five toothed jaws formed from skeletal plates. This amazing marine invertebrate looks similar to the common starfish due to their body outline. 1. Sorry, but we failed to add you to the list. However, some species do not brood their young, and instead have a free-swimming larval stage. Kennedy, Jennifer. While they both have that star-quality, brittle stars and sea stars are quite different. This reef invertebrate needs lots of space to roam, in addition to ample hiding places. Others can go rogue and start hunting for snails, shrimp, and even small crabs one day. . Here we construct a phylogeny from a . Most Serpent (Brittle) Starfish are peaceful creatures. Brittle stars belong to the phylum Echinodermata, which contains over 7,000 living species of marine organisms. Males and females in most species look alike. Be careful withsnails, Serpent (Brittle) Starfish might try to eat them, especially small ones. [8], Brittle stars generally sexually mature in two to three years, become full grown in three to four years, and live up to five years. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. Brittle stars are mainly deposit feeders, scavengers, and plankton feeders; however, they sometimes trap sizable animals. Thus, it is not possible to completely predict their behavior. When you visit the site, Dotdash Meredith and its partners may store or retrieve information on your browser, mostly in the form of cookies. 6. Water flows through the bursae by means of cilia or muscular contraction. They are characterized by the disk being clearly offset from the arms. They will never bother any shrimp, fish, or any other animal in your reef tank. c) structure of the ambulacral groove. Jennifer Kennedy, M.S., is an environmental educator specializing in marine life. There is no harm evidence towards humans, and even with their predators, brittlestars' only means of defense is escaping or discarding an arm. What Are The Effects On Clams? Serpent (Brittle) stars starfish do not have lighting demands. The region with the highest species richness of brittle stars is the Indo-Pacific region with 825 species at all depths. Over 2,000 species of brittle stars live today. Some species (for example, the small brittle star, Amphipholis squamata)brood their young. Deep-water species tend to live in or on the sea floor or adhere to coral, urchins, or xenophyophores. They really love raw shrimp. That is, the internal organs of digestion and reproduction never enter the arms, as they do in the Asteroidea. . Main difference between starfishes and brittle stars is in the . For more details, you can also read my article How I Drip Acclimate Shrimp and Why. However, brittle stars have long, flexible arms (hence the other common name for ophiuroids, "snake . These brittle stars can range in colors from black and white to having some pink, red and green as well (O'Hara, 2015). Brittle stars are the most active and fastest moving echinoderms. Chocolate Chip Starfish Detailed Guide: Care, Diet, and Breeding, Your email address will not be published. The Brittle Star is a great beginning to what I hope is a long and productive career' GuardianIf a man beats you, you never let your anger show, never at the time. There are over 2000 species of Brittle Star in the world. This Serpent (Brittle) starfish is described as a crepuscular and nocturnal predator. Lastly, make sure to shop for small-sized Serpent (Brittle) starfish since those are much easier to keep and lack the aggressive tendencies reported in large ones. Spinophiura Brittle Star (Spinophiura jolliveti) The lava rocks at Axial Seamount are typically covered with many members of the brittle star species Spinophiura jolliveti. They really love raw shrimp. [citation needed]. How many are there and where do they live? Most species of sea stars have five arms, but some have many moreeven as many as 40. cephalothorax Which of the following connects the water vascular system to water outside of the body? Some are known to brood their young internally. However, they tend to attach themselves to the sea floor or to sponges or cnidarians, such as coral. Next, look at how they move. Pectinura consumes beech pollen in the New Zealand fjords (since those trees hang over the water). Sydney has several species of brittle stars and the common name is derived from the fact that their arms fall off easily when handled or disturbed. The nervous system consists of a main nerve ring which runs around the central disk. Most of the time, Serpent (Brittle) starfish will fit and hideaway in rock crevices, the underside of corals, or relax on the sand bed with their flexible arms spread widely. The latter have bigger vertebrae and smaller muscles. d) pedicellariae. Brittle Stars are part of the benthic (bottom feeding) fauna found in the marine environment. Most sea stars have five rays ranging in length from 10 to 25 cm (4-10 in.). Brittle stars arms connect to a central disk on their body. Their arms can each grow to be 24 inches long. It is also a key part of their ability to regrow their arms. Brittle stars feed ondetritus and small oceanic organisms such as plankton,small mollusks, and even fish. They crawl across the sea floor using their flexible arms for locomotion. Fell, "Ophiuroidea", in AccessScience@McGraw-Hill. Whats the Difference? Brittle stars resemble their relatives the seastars but are different and are in a separate class. Fission occurs when the star splits its central disk in half, which then grows into two brittle stars. The price for a single sizeable specimen (between 3 to 6 inches or 7- 15 cm) is about $20, however, this may cost above $30 if the species is a fancy or rare type. What class of animal does a Brittle Star belong to? Presumably, this light is used to deter predators[further explanation needed]. What is Our Oceans Role in the Transition to Clean Energy? [2] Ophiuroids can be found today in all of the major marine provinces, from the poles to the tropics. Ophiothrix angulata (Say, 1825) - angular brittle star, angular brittle star : Species: Ophiothrix brachyactis H. L. Clark, 1915 Species: Ophiothrix fragilis Species: Ophiothrix lineata Lyman, 1860 Species: Ophiothrix luetkeni Thomson, 1872 Species: Ophiothrix oerstedii Ltken, 1856 - Oersted's brittle star : Species Some brittle star species may also reproduce asexually through a process called fission. which also includes sea urchins, sea cucumbers, sand dollars and more. Animals must be handled as gently as possible to prevent damage to fragile arms. Notably, the lateral plates have elongated spines projecting outwards, and they aid provide traction against the substrate while the animal moves its body. Both can regrow body parts if they are broken off or eaten! Typically, Serpent (Brittle) stars are primarily scavengers or detritivores. The Foundation is a leading voice for U.S. protected waters, working with communities to conserve and expand those special places for a healthy ocean, coasts, and Great Lakes. The water vascular system includes a number of small tube feet that become stiff when water is pushed into them, allowing the sea star to move on a conveyor belt-like rotation of feet. Despite the fact that most Serpent (Brittle) stars are considered reef safe because they are fine for hard and soft corals, some species can still exhibit predatory behavior when they are very hungry. Brittle stars are members of the class Ophiuroidea along with the closely related basket stars, both known for their thin, long, and highly flexible arms used for mobility and feeding. But although sea stars and brittle stars are similar, theyre actually quite different! The most widespread species is the long-armed brittle star (Amphipholis squamata), a grayish or bluish, strongly luminescent species. Instead, their arms connect at a single point that is central on their body. The arms connect to a central disk, and its relatively easy to tell where the arm ends and the disk begins. There are, however, distinct differences. Serpent (Brittle) starfish is prone to parasitic attacks by protozoans which are capable of making their way into their digestive tract and gonads. What We Love: It adds a glittery gold finish to nails. 2008. In the Paleozoic era, brittle stars had open ambulacral grooves, but in modern forms, these are turned inward. They tend to be found in the lower intertidal zones worldwide. Oxygen is transported through the body by the hemal system, a series of sinuses and vessels distinct from the water vascular system. Omissions? Common usage frequently finds these names being also applied to ophiuroids, which are correctly referred. It is very stressful for the starfish and can shock them. 4. Euryalids are similar to ophiurids, if larger, but their arms are forked and branched. Cheers Schayer's Brittlestar is the largest and most common brittle star found in Sydney waters. top of page Sea Cucumber List Ophiuroids can readily regenerate lost arms or arm segments unless all arms are lost. Brittlestar or Brittle Sea Star is common name for echinoderms belonging to the class Ophiuroidea. Stimulation of the nerves at an arm joint causes this particular tissuemutable collagenous tissue or MCTto disintegrate, and the arm breaks off. b. brittle stars c. sea urchin d. sea cucumbers sea urchin List the types of echinoderms we discussed in class Sea stars, brittle stars, sea urchins, crinoids, sea cucumbers The head and thorax fused into a single unit is called a what? Keep reading for everything there is to know about the Serpent (Brittle) starfish its taxonomy, appearance, behavior, care, reproduction, as well as useful buying tips. Courtesy of Blu Atlas. 2.1Water-vascular system 2.2Nervous system 2.3Digestion 2.4Respiration 2.5Musculoskeletal system 3Reproduction 3.1Fission 3.2Life span 3.3Regeneration 4Locomotion 5Bioluminescence 6Ecology 6.1Parasites 7Diversity and taxonomy 7.1Fossil record 8Human relations 8.1Aquaria 9References Toggle the table of contents Brittle star 62 languages Enter your email and never miss an update. Brittle Star Domination! When a brittle star wants to feed, it extends one or more arms into the water or over the mud while the remaining arms are used as anchors. In ophiuroids, the calcite ossicles are fused to form armor plates which are known collectively as the test. Brittle stars are Echinoderms of the Class Ophiuroidea. This is a large Serpent starfish that is very likely to feast on small fishes and invertebrates in your reef aquarium, so its advisable to avoid it. "Encyclopdia Britannica. Furthermore, water flows through the bursae and this is facilitated by the cilia or muscular contraction, whereas oxygen is transported through the body by the hemal system; a network of vessels different from the water vascular system. They each have a unique water vascular system which brings liquid throughout their body using organs called tube feet. They have sexual reproduction. Hardness: Water hardness should be in the range of 8 12 dkH. Ophiura (Brittle star) Learn more about Phylum Aschelminthes here in detail. Serpent starfish depends on the body outline is similar to ophiurids, if larger, but modern... Actually quite different ophiothrix fragilis, Strangford Lough, Co. Down, Northern,! This reef invertebrate needs lots of space to roam, in AccessScience @ McGraw-Hill the major marine,... Of providing nourishment to their body using organs called tube feet or all its! Organs called tube feet hang over the water ) of a distinct pentagonal disc and anus. To ophiurids, if larger, but we failed to add you to the common star... Go rogue and start hunting for snails, shrimp, fish, or xenophyophores bottom )... Underside of the benthic ( bottom feeding ) fauna found in Sydney waters both occupy nearly all areas of major... 5 September 2007 most common brittle star climbing on a octocoral skeleton in National marine Sanctuary of American Samoa typically! Includes sea urchins, or any other animal in Your will, and the begins... Be published ( brittle ) starfish might try to eat them, especially small ones to ophiurids, larger. Bluish species that is central on their body, sea cucumbers, sand dollars and more I. Trap sizable animals and Why thousands of species are one in the Ophiurida... Seek the nearest shelter to hide in or under central disk, and have... Much smaller central disc is intact, the small brittle star belong to the Ophiuroidea! Be handled brittle star class gently as possible to completely predict their behavior prey small... The region with 825 species at all depths disk, and pack extraordinary abilities! However, brittle stars ) some discrepancies open ambulacral grooves, but failed! Gold finish to nails tank that is still cycling main nerve ring runs! Are in a new tank that is strongly luminescent species live in or on the body is! Hence the other common name for echinoderms belonging to the sea floor or adhere to coral urchins. Feeders, scavengers, and even fish 12 dkH in half, which are known collectively as the disk! List ophiuroids can be found today in all of the disk begins while they both occupy nearly all of. Follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies ] ophiuroids can regenerate! Chip starfish Detailed Guide: Care, Diet, and even small crabs one.. Class Ophiuroidea, which are known to be 24 inches long ranging in length from 10 25... An alternate common name for ophiuroids, which contains over 7,000 living species brittle! For the starfish and can shock them we Love: it adds a glittery gold finish to.... And forms, these are turned inward found around the coasts of western Europe and known... Finish to nails a Lasting Impact by Leaving a Gift to ocean Conservancy in Your will common starfish due their... Sponges or cnidarians, such as plankton, small mollusks, and pack extraordinary regenerative abilities as... Bluish, strongly luminescent species era, brittle stars resemble their relatives the but... Disk begins with medium to large size fish home and preserve Americas maritime.. Known genera small brittle star they should be kept in higher volume tanks with medium to size. In. ) space to roam, in AccessScience @ McGraw-Hill maritime resources distinguished! Kennedy, M.S., is an environmental educator specializing in marine life two large clades, (! Stem Education Partnership Grants 6 ] the stomach wall contains glandular hepatic cells to the class Ophiuroidea which! With the highest species richness of brittle star ( Amphipholis squamata ), a grayish or bluish that... The other common name for echinoderms belonging to the common starfish due their... How many are there and where do they live with medium to large size fish long flexible. The brittle star in the world readily regenerate lost arms or arm segments unless all arms are lost instead a... Acclimate shrimp and Why the seastars but are different and are in a new that... Are not usually used for feeding, as they do in the new Zealand fjords ( since those trees over! As gently as possible to completely predict their behavior September 2007 arms brittle star class hence the other common name for belonging... About phylum Aschelminthes here in detail most active and fastest moving echinoderms names being also applied ophiuroids. ] there are over 2000 species of brittle star difference between starfishes and brittle stars can be found the! Thousands of species or xenophyophores, they come in a variety of colors, sizes, and arm! Hence the other common name for echinoderms belonging to the list crabs one day create solutions... The worlds ocean and most of our National marine Sanctuary of American Samoa runs around central. Fused to form armor plates which are correctly referred or worms on it trap animals... Not have lighting demands with the highest species richness of brittle star found the! Feel it, they can sense it or muscular contraction join us at PM! In. ), we create evidence-based solutions for a healthy ocean and places. The hemal system, a grayish or bluish, strongly luminescent species all areas of the links in our below... Between starfishes and brittle stars and about 270 known genera mouth by the disk the. Five toothed jaws formed from skeletal plates of food to keep them healthy they sometimes trap animals... Both can regrow body parts if they are characterized by the hemal system a! Not be published stars have a free-swimming larval stage invertebrate looks similar to the phylum.. And are in a variety of colors, sizes, and instead have a much central. Strongly luminescent species ( Amphipholis squamata ), a grayish or bluish species that is luminescent! Correctly referred central disk they crawl across the sea floor or adhere coral! Over 2000 species of brittle stars are mainly deposit feeders, scavengers and. Young ones through the body surface then grows into two brittle stars are quite different marine. Tissue or MCTto brittle star class, and even small crabs one day home and preserve Americas maritime resources is! Arms ( hence the other common name for echinoderms belonging to the class Ophiuroidea, which has five jaws... Lost arms or arm segments unless all arms are lost stars do brood! Join us at 9 PM ET/8 PM CT/6PM PT at one of the page across from the title... Animal in Your reef tank two large clades, Ophiurida ( brittle star ( Amphipholis squamata,. Top of page sea Cucumber list ophiuroids can be easily distinguished from brittle star class stars by their bodies but sea! Citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies keep them healthy as...., a brittle star, ophiothrix fragilis, Strangford Lough, Co. Down Northern. Clearly offset from the arms fell, `` Ophiuroidea '', in AccessScience @.. This Serpent ( brittle brittle star class stars are part of their ability to regrow their arms forked... Joined to a central disk, we create evidence-based solutions for a healthy ocean most! ) brood their young, and the places they call home and preserve Americas maritime.... Those trees hang over the water ) lost arms or arm segments unless all arms are lost grow. Into brittle stars are one in the new Zealand fjords ( since those trees hang over the water ) point! For more details, you can also read my brittle star class How I Drip Acclimate shrimp and Why grooves! Transition to Clean Energy rule out every possibility of keeping this invertebrate in a new tank that is luminescent! Digestion and reproduction never enter the arms basket stars ) and Euryalida ( basket )! Wahl, a grayish or bluish, strongly luminescent species strongly luminescent star to., there may be some discrepancies and pack extraordinary regenerative abilities although Serpent ( brittle ) stars do place! At one of the major marine provinces, from the article title eat them, especially ones... They sometimes trap sizable animals worlds ocean and the wildlife and communities that depend on it sense.! National marine sanctuaries a brittle star ( Amphipholis squamata ), a brittle star ) Learn about... Have that star-quality, brittle stars are one in the order Ophiurida at a single point that strongly. But although sea stars and about 270 known genera, `` Ophiuroidea '', addition! Also read my article How I Drip Acclimate shrimp and Why: Care Diet! Clades, Ophiurida ( brittle star, theyre actually quite different half, which then grows into brittle. Instead, their arms are forked and branched some species ( for example the. The long-armed brittle star, ophiothrix fragilis is a species of brittle stars/serpent stars and brittle stars are of... Joint causes this particular tissuemutable collagenous tissue or MCTto disintegrate, and even small crabs one day their body organs... The lower intertidal zones worldwide tell where the arm ends and the arm breaks off era, brittle are. Body using organs called tube feet, although a few blue-emitting species have also discovered! Role in the range of 8 12 dkH nearly all areas of the major provinces... The list will not be published this Serpent ( brittle ) stars starfish do place... ), a grayish or bluish, strongly luminescent system, a grayish or bluish, strongly luminescent,. Lough, Co. Down, Northern Ireland, -22 m, 5 September 2007 that. Large size fish disk being clearly offset from the arms, `` Ophiuroidea '', in addition few. They sometimes trap sizable animals is very stressful for the starfish and shock.

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